from
CIA World Factbook 2006
Antarctica
Introduction
Background: Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and
American commercial operators and British and Russian
national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic
Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic
Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group
of islands. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved
in the early 20th century. Following World War II,
there was an upsurge in scientific research on the
continent. A number of countries have set up year-round
research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but not all countries recognize
these claims. In order to form a legal framework for
the activities of nations on the continent, an
Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor
gives recognition to existing territorial claims;
signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Geography
Location: continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Geographic 90 00 S, 0 00 E
coordinates:
Map Antarctic Region
references:
Area: total: 14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72
million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa,
North America, and South America, but larger than
Australia and the subcontinent of Europe
Area - slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
comparative:
Land 0 km
boundaries: note: see entry on Disputes - international
Coastline: 17,968 km
Maritime Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive
claims: Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm
extensions seaward from their continental claims, but
like the claims themselves, these zones are not
accepted by other countries; 21 of 28 Antarctic
consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic
territory (although Russia and the US have reserved the
right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of the
other nations; also see the Disputes - international
entry
Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation,
and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder
than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation;
Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate;
higher temperatures occur in January along the coast
and average slightly below freezing
Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren
rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000
meters; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters;
ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern
Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula
area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound;
glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the
coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of
the area of the continent
Elevation lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
extremes: highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is
hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface
is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's
lowest elevation not under seawater
Natural iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and
resources: other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been
found in small uncommercial quantities; none presently
exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by
commercial fisheries
Land use: arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (2005)
Natural katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from
hazards: the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the
foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the
ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on
Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica;
other seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs
may calve from ice shelf
Environment - in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic
current ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27
issues: million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found
that increased ultraviolet light passing through the
hole damages the DNA of icefish, an Antarctic fish
lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown
to harm one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in 2002,
significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in
response to regional warming
Geography - the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest
note: continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches
the surface at the South Pole than is received at the
Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
People
Population: no indigenous inhabitants, but there are both permanent
and summer-only staffed research stations
note: 26 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic
Treaty, operate through their National Antarctic
Program a number of seasonal-only (summer) and
year-round research stations on the continent and its
nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the
region covered by the Antarctic Treaty); these
stations' population of persons doing and supporting
science or engaged in the management and protection of
the Antarctic region varies from approximately 4,000 in
summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately
1,000 personnel, including ship's crew and scientists
doing onboard research, are present in the waters of
the treaty region; peak summer (December-February)
population - 3,822 total; Argentina 417, Australia 213,
Brazil 40, Bulgaria 15, Chile 224, China 70, Ecuador
22, Finland 20, France 123, Germany 78, India 65, Italy
112, Japan 150, South Korea 60, NZ 85, Norway 44, Peru
28, Poland 40, Russia 429, South Africa 80, Spain 28,
Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 205, US 1,170, Uruguay 60
(2005-2006); winter (June-August) station population -
1,028 total; Argentina 176, Australia 62, Brazil 12,
Chile 88, China 29, France 37, Germany 9, India 25,
Italy 2, Japan 40, South Korea 15, NZ 10, Norway 7,
Poland 12, Russia 148, South Africa 10, Ukraine 12, UK
37, US 288, Uruguay 9 (2005); research stations
operated within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60
degrees south latitude) by members of the Council of
Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP):
year-round stations - 37 total; Argentina 6, Australia
3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, France 1, Germany 1,
India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland
1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3,
Uruguay 1, Italy and France jointly 1 (2005);
seasonal-only (summer) stations - 15 total; Australia
1, Bulgaria 1, Chile 1, Ecuador 1, Finland 1, Germany
1, Italy 1, Japan 1, Norway 1, Peru 1, Russia 1, Spain
2, Sweden 1, UK 1 (2005-2006); in addition, during the
austral summer some nations have numerous occupied
locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary
facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica
Government Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed
type: on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June
1961, establishes the legal framework for the
management of Antarctica; the 28th Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Meeting was held in Stockholm, Sweden in
June 2005; at these periodic meetings, decisions are
made by consensus (not by vote) of all consultative
member nations; at the end of 2005, there were 45
treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 17
non-consultative; consultative (decision-making)
members include the seven nations that claim portions
of Antarctica as national territory (some claims
overlap) and 21 non-claimant nations; the US and Russia
have reserved the right to make claims; the US does not
recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is
administered through meetings of the consultative
member nations; decisions from these meetings are
carried out by these member nations (with respect to
their own nationals and operations) in accordance with
their own national laws; the years in parentheses
indicate when a consultative member-nation acceded to
the Treaty and when it was accepted as a consultative
member, while no date indicates the country was an
original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are -
Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and
the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium,
Brazil (1975/1983), Bulgaria (1978/1998) China (1983/
1985), Ecuador (1987/1990), Finland (1984/1989),
Germany (1979/1981), India (1983/1983), Italy (1981/
1987), Japan, South Korea (1986/1989), Netherlands
(1967/1990), Peru (1981/1989), Poland (1961/1977),
Russia, South Africa, Spain (1982/1988), Sweden (1984/
1988), Ukraine (1992/2004), Uruguay (1980/1985), and
the US; non-consultative members, with year of
accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada
(1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic
(1962/1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece
(1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea
(1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971),
Slovakia (1962/1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey
(1996), and Venezuela (1999); note - Czechoslovakia
acceded to the Treaty in 1962 and separated into the
Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993; Article 1 - area
to be used for peaceful purposes only; military
activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but
military personnel and equipment may be used for
scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;
Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and
cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange
of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN
and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not
recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and
no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in
force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or
disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes
under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60
degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights;
Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access,
including aerial observation, to any area and may
inspect all stations, installations, and equipment;
advance notice of all expeditions and of the
introduction of military personnel must be given;
Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and
scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent
consultative meetings take place among member nations;
Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities
by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the
treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully
by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ;
Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding,
interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved
nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations
adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by
governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and
Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the
Environmental Protocol; Convention for the Conservation
of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in
1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was
signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January
1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the
Antarctic environment through six specific annexes: 1)
environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of
Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste
management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area
protection and management and 6) liability arising from
environmental emergencies; it prohibits all activities
relating to mineral resources except scientific
research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was
established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina
Legal system: Antarctica is administered through meetings of the
consultative member nations; decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (with
respect to their own nationals and operations) in
accordance with their own national laws; US law,
including certain criminal offenses by or against US
nationals, such as murder, may apply
extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply to
Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation
Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and
criminal penalties for the following activities, unless
authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of
native mammals or birds; the introduction of
nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially
protected areas; the discharge or disposal of
pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain
items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic
Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in
fines and one year in prison; the National Science
Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement
responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic
Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires
expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in
advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of
State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans
to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty;
for more information, contact Permit Office, Office of
Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington,
Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit
their website at www.nsf.gov; more generally, access to
the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between
60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a
number of relevant legal instruments and authorization
procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic
Treaty
Economy
Economy - Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad,
overview: account for Antarctica's limited economic activity.
Antarctic fisheries in 2003-04 (1 July-30 June)
reported landing 136,262 metric tons (estimated fishing
from the area covered by the Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic
Treaty area). Unregulated fishing, particularly of
Patagonian toothfish, is a serious problem. The CCAMLR
determines the recommended catch limits for marine
species. A total of 23,175 tourists visited in the
2004-05 Antarctic summer, up from the 19,486 visitors
the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers
on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several
yachts that make trips during the summer. Most tourist
trips last approximately two weeks.
Communications
Telephones - 0; note - information for US bases only (2001)
main lines in
use:
Telephones - NA
mobile
cellular:
Telephone general assessment: local systems at some research
system: stations
domestic: commercial cellular networks operating in a
small number of locations
international: country code - 672; via satellite
(including mobile Inmarsat and Iridium systems) from
all research stations, ships, aircraft, and most field
parties
Radio AM NA, FM 2, shortwave 1, note - information for US
broadcast bases only (2002)
stations:
Radios: NA
Television 1 (cable system with six channels; American Forces
broadcast Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
stations: note: information for US bases only (2002)
Televisions: several hundred at McMurdo Station (US)
note: information for US bases only (2001)
Internet .aq
country code:
Internet 7,757 (2006)
hosts:
Internet NA
Service
Providers
(ISPs):
Transportation
Airports: 20
note: there are no developed public access airports or
landing facilities; 28 stations or remote field
locations, operated by 11 National Antarctic Programs
from nations party to the Antarctic Treaty, have
restricted aircraft landing facilities comprising a
total of 11 runways and 22 skiways for fixed-wing
aircraft; some stations have both runways and skiways;
commercial enterprises operate two aircraft landing
facilities at one station; helicopter pads are
available at all 37 year-round and 15 seasonal stations
operated by National Antarctic Programs; the 11 runways
are suitable for wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft: three
are gravel, four blue-ice, two sea-ice and two
compacted snow; of these, five are 3 km in length, two
are between 2 km and 3 km in length, three are between
1 km and 2 km in length and one is less than 1 km in
length; the 22 snow surface skiways are limited to use
by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, three
are equal to or greater than 3 km in length, one is
between 2 km and 3 km in length, nine are between 1 km
and 2 km in length, five are less than 1 km in length,
and four are of unknown or variable length; snow
surface skiways are generally prepared and maintained
during specific periods only and during summer; all
aircraft landing facilities subject to severe
restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme
seasonal and geographic conditions; aircraft landing
facilities do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval
from the respective governmental or nongovernmental
operating organization required for using their
facilities; landed aircraft are subject to inspection
in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty;
guidelines for the operation of aircraft near
concentrations of birds in Antarctica were adopted in
2004; relevant legal instruments and authorization
procedures adopted by states party to the Antarctic
Treaty regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area,
that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of
latitude South, have to be complied with (see
information under "Legal System"); an Antarctic Flight
Information Manual (AFIM) providing up-to-date details
of Antarctic air facilities and procedures is
maintained and published by the Council of Managers of
National Antarctic Programs (2006)
Airports - total: 28
with unpaved over 3,047 m: 1
runways: 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 10
under 914 m: 4
length unknown or variable: 4 (2006)
Heliports: 37
note: all 37 year-round and 15 seasonal stations
operated by National Antarctic Programs stations have
restricted helicopter landing facilities (helipads)
(2006)
Ports and there are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica;
terminals: most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and
supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small
boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a
basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include
McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03
W); government use only except by permit (see Permit
Office under "Legal System"); all ships at port are
subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7,
Antarctic Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and
intermittent; relevant legal instruments and
authorization procedures adopted by the states parties
to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access to the
Antarctic Treaty area, to all areas between 60 and 90
degrees of latitude south, have to be complied with
(see "Legal System"); The Hydrographic Committee on
Antarctica (HCA), a special hydrographic commission of
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), is
responsible for hydrographic surveying and nautical
charting matters in Antarctic Treaty area; it
coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate and
appropriate charts and other aids to navigation in
support of safety of navigation in region; membership
of HCA is open to any IHO Member State whose government
has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and which
contributes resources and/or data to IHO Chart coverage
of the area; members of HCA are Argentina, Australia,
Chile, China, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy,
NZ, Norway, Russia, South Africa, Spain, and the UK
(2005)
Military
Military - the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a
note: military nature, such as the establishment of military
bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military
maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it
permits the use of military personnel or equipment for
scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Transnational
Issues
Disputes - Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty
international: Summary in government type entry); Argentina,
Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK claim land
and maritime sectors (some overlapping) for a large
portion of the continent; the US and many other states
do not recognize these territorial claims and have made
no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the
right to do so); no claims have been made in the sector
between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west; several
states with territorial claims in Antarctica have
expressed their intention to submit data to the UN
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf to
extend their continental shelf claims to adjoining
undersea ridges